Moreover, little attention has been paid to modalities and signal components that can be produced by body movements such as vibrations and non-vocal sounds in the context of courtship in birds (but see Soma and Mori 2015 Hogan and Stoddard 2018). However, relatively little experimental work exists on multimodal communication during courtship displays (Mitoyen et al. Previous reviews have provided several hypotheses and frameworks for understanding multimodal communication systems (Johnstone 1996 Hebets and Papaj 2005). To obtain a comprehensive understanding of a multimodal signal and its functions, knowing the wild behavior of an animal and its surrounding environments are as important as conducting well-controlled experiments in the laboratory.īird courtship displays are a good example of multimodal signals which can involve the coordination of vocalizations and body movements (Cooper and Goller 2004 Dalziell et al. As well as the physical abilities and constraints of signalers, environmental and social conditions also have a great influence on multimodal signaling strategies and their efficacy (reviewed in Partan 2017). These hypotheses work under the premise that the signals can be efficiently transmitted via appropriate mediums in wild environments (e.g., air, water and substrate). Multimodal signaling can contribute to enhancing the accuracy of signal perception under noisy conditions (backup signal hypothesis) and/or provide multiple messages indicating several different qualities of the sender (multiple message hypothesis, Johnstone 1996). Multimodality is one of the factors that make animal communication complex. My findings imply that the courtship displays of cordon-bleus are an ideal candidate for investigating the role and function of multimodal communication in animals, and demonstrate the importance of further quantitative studies in both laboratory and field. I also observed that wild cordon-bleus produced non-vocal sounds and shook branches during courtship, which can contribute to multimodal signal production (i.e., visual, acoustic, and vibrational signals). As a result of field observation and behavioral analysis, I found that wild cordon-bleus perform tap-dance like displays just as captive cordon-bleus. My previous laboratory study using high-speed video cameras revealed that courtship bobbing includes multiple rapid steps similar to human tap-dancing, which presumably contributes to producing non-vocal sounds and/or vibrations in addition to visual signals. Both sexes of cordon-bleus perform multimodal courtship displays by holding a piece of nest material, bobbing up and down, and singing. Cordon-bleus ( Uraeginthus spp.) are socially monogamous songbirds from East Africa. Here, I present evidence that socially monogamous songbirds perform complex courtship displays that can produce multimodal and multicomponent signals in wild conditions. To fully understand the evolution and function of multimodal communication, it is essential to investigate the behavior in the wild. Multimodal signaling systems are shaped not only by a signaler’s physical abilities but also by external factors such as the position of signal receivers and the properties of the medium through which the signals are transmitted.
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